For four centuries, the Levant has been part of the Ottoman Empire, and Palestine is occasionally the site of regional and international conflicts. In the second half of the nineteenth century, Arab and Palestinian nationalist sentiments began to emerge. In Europe, Zionism starts to take shape and sets its sights on Palestine through immigration and colonization. This is met by growing opposition in Palestine. By the end of World War I, the Ottoman Empire was defeated, and Great Britain occupied Palestine. The British government issued the Balfour Declaration, which endorses Zionist goals against the will of the indigenous population.
Establishment of Petah Tikva, the First Zionist Colony in Palestine
1878 – 1882
Petah Tikva (Gate of Hope) is established on the coastal lands of the Palestinian village Mulabbas (near Jaffa ) by Jerusalemite Jews, but is very soon evacuated due to malaria and hunger. It will be settled again in 1882, as the first Zionist settlement, by immigrants in the first wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine (1882-1903).
Jewish Nationalism in Eastern Europe
1881 – 1884
A wave of pogroms against Jews takes place in the Russian Empire. This leads Leon Pinsker to anonymously publish Auto-Emancipation, where he argues for raising Jewish national consciousness. Groups of Hovevei Zion (Lovers of Zion) are formed in Russia and elsewhere in Eastern Europe. They hold their first congress in Kattowitz (then Germany, today Poland ) in 1884, establish a charitable society that supports Jewish farmers in Syria and Palestine, and elect Pinsker as its chairman.
Seven Jewish Colonies were established in Palestine in the 1880s
1882 – 1884
In addition to Petah Tikva (which was resettled in 1882), four Jewish colonies were established in the District of Jerusalem: Rishon LeZion and Nes Tsiyona (1882) and Eqron and Gadera (1884). Three others are created in the District of Nablus (part of the Province of Syria ): Zikhron Ya’qov and Rosh Pina (1882) and Yesud ha-Ma’ala (1883).
First Wave of Jewish Immigration to Palestine
1882 – 1903
European Jews begin to emigrate to Palestine, and within 20 years, about 25,000 Jewish immigrants (mainly from Eastern Europe) have settled. Settlers establish agricultural enterprises, thanks to the massive financial contributions of wealthy European Jews, most notably Baron Edmond de Rothschild and Baron Maurice de Hirsch.
European Powers Press the Ottomans on Jewish Immigration
2 MARCH 1888 – 4 OCTOBER 1888
The Ottomans inform European powers that the passports of Jews “should expressly state that they are going to Jerusalem in the performance of a pilgrimage, and not for the purpose of engaging in commerce or taking up their residence there”, in order to obtain, on arrival in Palestine, a three-month residence permit issued by port authorities. Britain, France, and the US reject such conditions and, on 4 October, the Ottoman government reverses course and informs the US that the regulations only apply to groups of Jews immigrating in large numbers and that no obstacles would be put in the way of individual Jews.
Nine Jewish Colonies were established in Palestine in the 1890s
1890 – 1896
Despite Ottoman regulations, Jewish colonies were established in Palestine in the 1890s. In the District of Jerusalem, four are created: Rehovot (1890), Motsa (1894), Hartuv (1895), and Beer Tuvya (1896). In the District of Acre (part of the Province of Beirut), five are established: Mishmar haYarden (1890); Hadera, Shefeiya, and Ein Zeitim (all in 1891); and Metula (1896).
Jerusalem Notables Oppose Jewish Immigration
JUNE 1891
Jerusalem notables send a petition to Istanbul asking that Russian Jews be prohibited from immigrating to Palestine and acquiring land.
The Ottomans and the Sale of Land to Jews in Palestine
26 NOVEMBER 1892 – 3 APRIL 1893
The Ottoman government bans the sale of miri (private usufruct State land) to both Ottoman and non-Ottoman Jews. However, after complaints by European powers, the Ottomans declared that foreign Jews who reside legally in Palestine may buy land.
Publication of The Jewish State by Theodor Herzl
FEBRUARY 1896
Influenced by the Dreyfus affair in France (1894) and other factors, Theodor Herzl, an Austrian journalist, publishes Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State) where he advocates the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine or elsewhere as the solution to the “Jewish question” (meaning the discussion in Europe regarding the appropriate status and treatment of Jews in society, especially in eastern and central Europe). Herzl will be considered the father of modern political Zionism.
Local Control of Zionist Land Purchases in the Sanjaq of Jerusalem
1897 – 1901
Having fought Jewish immigration and land purchases since the early 1880s, the Mufti of Jerusalem, Muhammad Taher al-Husseini, presides over a new commission that scrutinizes applications for the transfer of land in the Sanjaq of Jerusalem and succeeds in stopping all purchases by Jews from 1897 to 1901.
1st Zionist Congress Is Held in Basel
29 AUGUST 1897 – 31 AUGUST 1897
Attended by 204 participants from 17 countries, the 1st Zionist Congress issues the Basel Program, which states that Zionism “strives for the establishment of a publicly and legally secured home in Palestine for the Jewish people” through (1) the appropriate promotion of colonizing Palestine with Jewish agriculturalists, artisans, and tradesmen; (2) the organization and gathering of all Jews through suitable local and general institutions; (3) the promotion of Jewish national feeling and consciousness; and (4) preparatory steps for the attainment of such Government consent as is necessary in order to achieve the aim of Zionism. The Congress establishes the Zionist Organization, adopts its statutes, and elects Theodor Herzl as president of the organization.
2nd Zionist Congress Is Held in Basel
28 AUGUST 1898 – 31 AUGUST 1898
In addition to its political-diplomatic activity, the 2nd Zionist Congress focuses its attention on overcoming the opposition of Jewish community leaders to its plan to “conquer” the Jewish communities to Zionism. It lays the foundation of the Jewish Colonial Trust as a financial instrument to raise funds for the development of Jewish colonization in Palestine.
Eight Jewish Colonies were established in Palestine between 1899 and 1907
1899 – 1907
Six Jewish colonies are established in the District of Acre: Sejera and Mahanayim (1899); Mas-ha, Milhamiya, and Yevniel (1902); and Beit Gan (1904). Mas-ha was renamed Kfar Tavor in 1903 to distinguish it from the Arab village on whose land it is established. Two colonies are established in the District of Jerusalem: Beer Yacov (1906) and Ben Shemen (1907).
Herzl Correspondence with Jerusalem Mayor
19 MARCH 1899
Theodor Herzl sends a letter to the Palestinian mayor of Jerusalem, Yusuf Diya-uddin Pasha al-Khalidi, hinting that, if Zionists are not welcome in Palestine, they will go elsewhere.
3rd Zionist Congress Is Held in Basel
15 AUGUST 1899 – 18 AUGUST 1899
The 3rd Zionist Congress ratified the establishment of the Jewish Colonial Trust, a financial instrument to develop Jewish colonization in Palestine, and decided that its funds could be spent only in Palestine and Syria.
4th Zionist Congress Is Held in London
13 AUGUST 1900 – 16 AUGUST 1900
The 4th Zionist Congress resolves that a Keren Kayemeth Leisrael (Jewish National Fund) be founded as an organization charged to buy and develop land in Palestine.
Ottoman Consolidated Regulations on Jewish Residence and Land Purchase in Palestine
29 NOVEMBER 1900 – 28 JANUARY 1901
The Ottoman Council of Ministers in Istanbul issued consolidated regulations relative to Jewish residence and land purchase in Palestine to enter into force on 28 January 1901. Foreign Jews who are “long resident” in Palestine (i.e. implicitly including illegal Jewish residents) and those “whose residence is not prohibited” are to enjoy the same rights as Ottoman subjects, and are allowed to buy miri land (land whose bare ownership belongs to the state and usufruct to people who invest it) and build on it in accordance with the Land Code. Directives to ensure that Jewish pilgrims do not overstay in Palestine and do not purchase land are also issued. A “Special Commission for the Prevention of Jewish Immigrants from Settling in Palestine” is set up in Jerusalem. By regularizing past residence and land purchase violations, the Ottoman government hopes that the restrictions it is reaffirming will finally be implemented. However, the restrictions will prove to be no more effective than the earlier ones issued since 1881.
Palestinian Peasants in Tiberias Score a Rare Success Against Zionist Land Acquisition
8 DECEMBER 1900 – 11 NOVEMBER 1901
In contravention of its own directives, the Ottoman Council of Ministers gives the green light to the projected sale of land to Narcisse Leven, a French Jew and president of the Jewish Colonization Association (JCA), with the justification that Leven is entitled as a foreigner to acquire land, provided he gives assurances that he would not install foreign Jews on it. Leven acquires 31,500 dunams near Tiberias from the Beirut family of the Sursocks. Palestinian peasants who are tenants of the land (from Lubya and Abbadiyya villages) harass JCA surveyors on several occasions. Their protest against the sale is supported by Amin Arslan, the qa’im maqam (subdistrict commissioner) of Tiberias. The disquiet brought about by the sale finally leads to its abrogation by Istanbul. (Similar attempts by Leven to purchase land in the Sanjak of Jerusalem were also rejected by Istanbul in 1901.) However, settlements in the Tiberias area continued to expand between 1901 and 1904, resulting in further clashes with Palestinian peasants.
5th Zionist Congress Is Held in Basel
26 DECEMBER 1901 – 30 DECEMBER 1901
The 5th Zionist Congress establishes the Keren Kayemeth Leisrael (Jewish National Fund) for the purpose of raising funds for land purchase in Palestine, opens a branch of the Jewish Colonial Trust in Jaffa, and approves a program focusing on developing Hebrew culture.
Establishment of the Anglo-Palestine Company
7 JULY 1903 – 24 NOVEMBER 1903
The Anglo-Palestine Company (APC, a subsidiary of the Jewish Colonial Trust in London ) is the first Zionist organization to seek establishment in Palestine (July). Ottoman authorities in Jerusalem and Istanbul are aware that the bank is connected with the Zionist movement and has the aim of carrying out its program. The Porte tries to obstruct the licensing of APC operations in Palestine. However, the British embassy in Istanbul pressures the Porte to permit (in November) APC “to conduct its affairs without hindrance so long as it confined its operations to commercial matters.” The first branch of APC opens in Jaffa.
6th Zionist Congress Is Held in Basel
23 AUGUST 1903 – 28 AUGUST 1903
The 6th Zionist Congress discusses an offer made by British politician and leading imperialist Joseph Chamberlain to establish an autonomous Jewish settlement in East Africa (Uganda ). Justified as a temporary solution and not as an alternative to Palestine, the scheme gives rise to considerable opposition and walk-outs. However, a resolution is adopted to send an “investigatory commission” to examine the territory proposed. A Palestine Commission, paralleling the East Africa Investigatory Commission, is formed.
2nd Wave of Jewish Immigration to Palestine
1904 – 1914
The second wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine (which lasted until 1914) consisted of around 40,000 immigrants, many of whom had a strong ideological commitment to Zionism and called for the “conquest of the land” and the “conquest of labour.” This anti-Arab attitude, which expresses itself in the expulsion of Palestinian fellahin from the settlements in which they work, will aggravate the disputes in Palestine between Jewish colonies and neighbouring Arab rural communities.
Theodor Herzl Dies; Replaced by David Wolffsohn
3 JULY 1904
David Wolffsohn, a close associate of Theodor Herzl and director of the Jewish Colonial Trust, takes over the leadership of the Zionist movement.
David Wolffsohn
Palestinian-Zionist Tension at al-Shajara – Sejera in the Tiberias Region
AUGUST 1904 – SEPTEMBER 1904
Tension between Palestinian farmers of al-Shajara (and also Lubya ) and Zionist settlers of Sejera colony in the Tiberias region breaks out over the delimitation of land ownership. A Jewish settler is killed.
Publication of The Awakening of the Arab Nation in Asiatic Turkey by Najib Azoury
JANUARY 1905
Le réveil de la nation arabe dans l’Asie turque calls for the separation of Arab provinces from the Ottoman Empire and warns of the emergence of two important phenomena: “the awakening of the Arab nation and the latent efforts of the Jews to reconstitute on a very large scale the ancient kingdom of Israel. Both these movements are destined to fight each other continuously until one of them wins. The fate of the entire world will depend on the final result of this struggle between these two peoples representing two contrary principles.”
7th Zionist Congress Is Held in Basel
27 JULY 1905 – 2 AUGUST 1905
The 7th Zionist Congress is briefed by the investigatory commission about Uganda’s “unsuitability” for Jewish mass settlement and adopts a resolution opposing any alternative to Palestine.
8th Zionist Congress Is Held in the Hague
14 JULY 1907 – 21 JULY 1907
The Zionist Congress decides to give precedence to practical colonization steps in Palestine (as opposed to obtaining an internationally recognized charter), to establish a Palestine branch of the organization, and to form a Palestine Land Development Company. The meeting is held in The Hague in order to give high visibility to the Zionist Congress during the Second International Peace Conference (June-October 1907), attended by representatives of world powers, which will lead to what is known as the 1907 Hague Convention.
Zionist Evasion of Ottoman Regulations
AUGUST 1907
The Ottoman governor of Jerusalem issues a report that describes how Zionist immigration and land acquisition evade the regulations in force.
Creation of Underground Bar Giora Group
29 SEPTEMBER 1907
Jews who had come to Palestine during the second immigration wave meet at the home of Yitzhak Ben-Zvi (who will be elected the second president of the State of Israel in 1952) in Jaffa and establish an underground paramilitary group under the name of “Bar Giora Group ” (Bar Giora is believed to have participated in the revolt against the Romans in the first century). They adopt the motto: “In fire and blood did Judea fall; in blood and fire Judea shall rise.” They call for establishing outposts to guard Jewish colonies and retaliating with force against what they would consider an Arab infringement.
The Zionist Organization Opens an Office in Jaffa
DECEMBER 1907
Implementing a decision adopted by the 8th Zionist Congress (held in July 1907), the Zionist Organisation opened an office in Jaffa. The Palestine office will devote all its energies to acquiring land and establishing Jewish colonies, and it will centralize the different colonization initiatives, whether they come from philanthropic organizations or from immigrant associations.
Six Jewish Colonies were established in Palestine between 1908 and 1910
1908 – 1910
Five Jewish colonies are established in the District of Acre: Atlit, Deganiya, Kinneret, Migdal, and Mitspa. One colony, Hulda, is established in the District of Jerusalem.
Zionist-Palestinian Violence Breaks out in Jaffa
16 MARCH 1908
A fight involving the use of firearms breaks out in Jaffa between dozens of young Jews and Arabs and leaves 15 people injured. The local police intervene in favour of the Arabs and walk into two hotels where Jews, mostly new immigrants from Prussia, reside. Due to Jewish leaders’ and European consuls’ pressure on the government in Istanbul, Jaffa’s qa’im maqam is removed from his post. This Jewish-Arab urban violence is the first of its kind to occur in Palestine. Until then, disputes had erupted in rural areas over land ownership and tenancy or right of passage.
Establishment of Palestinian Newspaper al-Karmel in Haifa
DECEMBER 1908
The newspaper al-Karmel was established by Najib Nassar. It soon thereafter launches an anti-Zionism campaign. More than any other publication, al-Karmel will help develop the Arabs’ awareness of the Zionist program in Palestine and will encourage the local population to take active steps against Jewish land purchase. Four other newspapers will be influenced directly by Nassar and will join his campaign against land sales to Zionists: al-Ra’y al-‘Am, al-Haqiqa, al-Mufid (in Beirut), and al-Muqtabas (in Damascus ).
Foundation of Tel Aviv
1909
Establishment of al-Madrasa al-Dusturiyya, Jerusalem
1909
Khalil al-Sakakini establishes al-Madrasa al-dusturiyya (Constitutional School) in Jerusalem; it is the first private secular school in Palestine.
Foundation of the Zionist Paramilitary Group Hashomer
12 APRIL 1909
The founders of the Bar Giora Group, which was created in 1907 as an underground organization meet in the Kfar Tavor colony (previously Mas-ha) in the Tiberias subdistrict and decided to publicly establish and merge into a new organisation they called Hashomer (the Guard). Its purpose is to guard Jewish settlements in Palestine and provide training. With the approval of the Jewish Colonization Association, the new organization applies for a license to form a unit of 10 armed Jewish guards. Tiberias authorities grant the license; it includes the provision to increase the size of the unit if necessary. Israeli historians consider Hashomer as the nucleus of the Haganah and the Israeli army.
9th Zionist Congress Is Held in Hamburg
26 DECEMBER 1909 – 30 DECEMBER 1909
Zionist representatives from Palestine participate in the congress for the first time. Differences between “practical” Zionists and “political” Zionists on how to implement the Zionist agenda are not resolved. The Congress decides to create a cooperative settlement society in Palestine.
Establishment of Filastin Newspaper in Jaffa
JANUARY 1911
The newspaper Filastin was established in Jaffa by Isa al-Isa. It addresses its readers as Palestinians.
10th Zionist Congress Is Held in Basel
9 AUGUST 1911 – 15 AUGUST 1911
The friction between practical and political Zionists comes to an end through the adoption of the “synthetic” approach proposed by Chaim Weizmann. The Congress adopts the position that the Jewish problem could be solved only by Jewish emigration to Palestine.
Publication of Zionism by Najib Nassar
OCTOBER 1911
Palestinian journalist Najib Nassar publishes the first book in Arabic on Zionism, entitled Zionism: Its History, Objectives and Importance.
11th Zionist Congress Meets in Vienna
2 SEPTEMBER 1913 – 9 SEPTEMBER 1913
The Congress defines immigration to Palestine as a Zionist obligation, a duty of each Zionist. It calls for establishing a Hebrew University in Jerusalem. (The university will be effectively created in 1925 during the British Mandate.)
Railway Lines in Palestine
1914
Railway lines connecting Haifa to Acre and Afula to Nablus are completed, further expanding local infrastructure and control.
World War I: The Ottomans Enter the War
1 AUGUST 1914 – FEBRUARY 1915
World War I breaks out, and it quickly leads to a series of events that affect the future of the Ottoman Empire. In September, the Ottomans decided to abolish capitulations that once afforded European powers special status within the empire. In November, they officially entered the war on the German side. In December, the British annexed Cyprus and declared Egypt a protectorate. By February 1915, the Gallipoli campaign began to put Ottoman lands at the apex of the imperial battlefield of the war.
Hussein-McMahon Correspondence
14 JULY 1915 – 30 MARCH 1916
Sir Henry McMahon, British High Commissioner in Egypt, exchanges letters with Sharif Hussein of Mecca to induce him to revolt against the Ottomans in exchange for British support for an independent Arab state. In a letter dated 25 October 1915, McMahon writes that “Great Britain is prepared to recognize and support the independence of the Arabs in all the regions within the limits demanded by the Sharif of Mecca,” with the following exception: that “the two districts of Mersina and Alexandretta and portions of Syria lying to the west of the districts of Damascus, Homs, Hama and Aleppo cannot be said to be purely Arab, and should be excluded from the limits demanded”. The letter explains that British assurances apply to “those regions lying within those frontiers wherein Great Britain is free to act without detriment to the interest of her ally, France .” It is largely assumed, in light of this letter and subsequent letters that are exchanged between Hussein and McMahon, that Palestine is clearly included in the territory where Arabs will enjoy independence with British assistance. The British will deny, after the issuance of the Balfour Declaration, that Palestine was ever intended for inclusion in the independent Arab territory.
Signing of the Sykes-Picot Agreement
16 MAY 1916
The secret agreement divided the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire between Great Britain and France.
Start of the Arab Revolt
10 JUNE 1916
On the strength of the assurances he received from McMahon, Sharif Hussein of Mecca declared Arab independence from Ottoman rule and the beginning of the Arab revolt.
British Palestine Campaign
MARCH 1917 – SEPTEMBER 1918
The campaign against the Ottomans starts in March 1917. Jerusalem is conquered in December, and the remainder of Palestine is occupied in September 1918.
Russian Revolution Brings the Bolsheviks to Power
8 MARCH 1917 – 8 NOVEMBER 1917
Balfour Declaration Is Made
2 NOVEMBER 1917
British Foreign Secretary Lord Arthur James Balfour sends a letter (known as the Balfour Declaration ) to Baron Lionel Walter de Rothschild pledging British support for the establishment of a Jewish National Home in Palestine.
Arrival in Palestine of the Zionist Commission
APRIL 1918
The Zionist Commission, led by Chaim Weizmann, is officially defined as the “advisory body to the British authorities in Palestine in all matters relating to Jews, or which may affect the establishment of a National Home for the Jewish People.”
Establishment of Muslim-Christian Associations
OCTOBER 1918 – DECEMBER 1918
Muslim-Christian associations are established in Palestinian towns; within a short period, 27 are created. At the end of January 1919, their representatives held a national meeting in Jerusalem that constitutes the First Palestinian National Congress. Seven congresses were held between 1919 and 1928.
End of World War I on the Eastern Front Between the Ottoman Empire and the Allied Powers
30 OCTOBER 1918
3rd Wave of Jewish Immigration to Palestine
1919 – 1923
More than 35,000 Zionists immigrate to Palestine (3rd wave of immigration). (Between 1914 and 1918, one-third of the Jewish population in Palestine emigrated.)
1st Palestinian National Congress Is Held in Jerusalem
27 JANUARY 1919 – 10 FEBRUARY 1919
Initiated by the Muslim-Christian Associations, the Palestinian National Congress sends to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, two memoranda rejecting the Balfour Declaration and demanding independence as part of Syria.
Appointment of the King-Crane Commission
20 MARCH 1919 – 21 JULY 1919
Treaty of Versailles and League of Nations Covenant Signed
28 JUNE 1919
The Treaty of Versailles was signed between the Allied Powers and Germany. The League of Nations Covenant forms Part I of the Treaty. Article 22 of the Covenant stipulates that “certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognised subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory.”
The General Syrian Congress and the King-Crane Commission
2 JULY 1919 – 3 JULY 1919
Attended by delegates from all over Bilad al-Sham, including Palestine, the General Syrian Congress conveys to the King-Crane Commission a message that recalls the “noble principles” laid down by President Woodrow Wilson and asserts the Congress position on the future of Syria: independence and unity of Syria (including Lebanon and Palestine) based on broad decentralization principles; rejection of Article 22 of the League of Nations Covenant (that places Syria under a Mandatory regime); if, nevertheless, Article 22 is to be applied, seeking a 20-year technical and economic assistance by the United States that does not prejudice complete independence; accepting Great Britain as a substitute for the United States; rejection of any French role in any part of Syria; rejection of Jewish immigration and of the Zionist demand to create a “Jewish Commonwealth” in Palestine; ensuring the common rights and common obligations of “our Jewish compatriots.”
Recommendations of the King-Crane Commission
28 AUGUST 1919
The commission recommends that the unity of Syria (comprising Lebanon and Palestine) be preserved and that Syria should be placed under one Mandatory power. On Palestine, the commissioners report that the Zionists with whom they met “looked forward to a practically complete dispossession of the present non-Jewish inhabitants of Palestine, by various forms of purchase” and that “no British officer, consulted by the Commissioners, believed that the Zionist program could be carried out except by force of arms.” The report adds that decisions requiring the use of arms “are surely not gratuitously to be taken in the interests of a serious injustice.” The commission recommends “a greatly reduced Zionist program” and consequently “that the Jewish immigration should be definitely limited and that the project for making Palestine distinctly a Jewish commonwealth should be given up.” The commission reiterates that there is no reason why Palestine could not be included in a united Syrian state. Though the findings and recommendations of the commission are significant, they are far from expressing a consensus within the US administration. Of note: the report was made public only in 1922.
A General Palestinian Congress Meets in Damascus
27 FEBRUARY 1920
Representatives from Palestine, members of the General Syrian Congress present in Damascus, hold a separate meeting (they call the General Palestinian Congress) in which they affirm their refusal to consider “Southern Syria (Palestine) as not part of Syria.”
The General Syrian National Congress Proclaims the Independence of Syria
7 MARCH 1920 – 8 MARCH 1920
The Congress proclaims the Arab Syrian Kingdom (that includes the territories of Syria , Lebanon , Palestine and Transjordan ) with Prince Faisal as king.
San Remo Conference
25 APRIL 1920
The San Remo Conference, attended by representatives of the Allied Powers (Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan ), adopted resolutions that practically incorporated the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The conference grants France “mandate” over Syria (covering what will become Syria and Lebanon ), and Britain is granted “mandate” over Palestine and Mesopotamia (covering what will become Palestine, Transjordan, and Iraq ). In relation to Article 22 of the League of Nations Covenant (which says in paragraph 4 that ex-Ottoman communities “can be provisionally recognised as independent States” and that their “wishes must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory”), the conference distinguishes between Syria and Mesopotamia on one side, with Palestine on the other side. On Syria and Mesopotamia, the conference recalls the independence provision of Article 22 but does not refer to the communities’ “wishes.” On Palestine, the conference recalls Article 22 but makes no mention of the community’s wishes or of independence. It reserves instead a specific provision that the Mandatory power will be responsible for implementing the Balfour Declaration.
Founding of the Haganah, the Jewish Paramilitary Organization
JUNE 1920
Palestine Civil Government
1 JULY 1920
A “civil government,” replacing the British military administration, is established. Herbert Samuel is appointed High Commissioner.
French Occupy Damascus
25 JULY 1920
French troops occupy Damascus, bringing an end to Prince Faisal’s rule in Syria.
Mahlul Land Ordinance
1 OCTOBER 1920
The British authorities passed an ordinance to control the acquisition of mahlul land. Under the Ottomans, mahlul land (consisting of miri, which has not been cultivated for more than three years or whose owner has passed away without heirs) could easily be granted to any interested party; the new ordinance renders such possession illegal and subject to heavy penalties and allows only leasing to occupants. This complete turnaround is part of the overall British objective, entangled in Zionist interests, to bring as much land as possible under exclusive State control.
Advisory Council for Palestine Is Established
OCTOBER 1920
The Advisory Council for Palestine, set up by the new High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, includes 10 British officials, 4 Muslims, 3 Christians, and 2 Jews. Because the council is a temporary mechanism, the Palestinians do not boycott it in the beginning.
Establishment of the Histadrut
DECEMBER 1920
HaHistadrut HaKlalit shel HaOvdim B’Eretz Yisrael (the General Organization of Workers in Eretz Yisrael) is established in Haifa by Zionist leaders.
3rd Palestinian National Congress Meets in Haifa
13 DECEMBER 1920 – 19 DECEMBER 1920
The 3rd Palestinian National Congress elects a nine-member Arab Executive Committee, headed by Musa Kazim al-Husseini, to conduct business between congresses. It denounces the British for assuming legislative powers that should reside in an elected Parliament, and it condemns the establishment of the Advisory Council, whose members are to be appointed by the British. Husseini will remain president of the Committee until he died in 1934, signalling the demise of the Committee.
Mewat Land Ordinance
16 FEBRUARY 1921
The Mewat Land Ordinance is issued, making it illegal for residents to acquire mewat land (vacant or grazing land not owned by anyone) for the purpose of reviving it. This ordinance (like the Mahlul Land Ordinance passed four months earlier) is taken by the British Mandate to extend its grip on Palestinian land by repealing crucial Ottoman provisions that made it possible to acquire unused land. The new ordinance, which threatens offenders with prosecution, sets off an immediate uproar among the Arab leadership.
Palestine Police Ordinance Is Issued
15 MARCH 1921
British authorities establish the Palestine Police as a civilian police force, laying out its structure, powers, and duties and the guidelines for appointing, promoting, disciplining, and dismissing officers. The Ordinance also grants Mandate authorities the power to declare an area to be in “a disturbed or dangerous state,” prompting increased police presence (the cost of which would be borne by the inhabitants of the area), and to impose collective fines on such areas from which the government could compensate individuals who had suffered injury to body or property.
May Day Clashes in Jaffa
1 MAY 1921 – 7 MAY 1921
The clashes occur first among Jews in Tel Aviv celebrating the “First of May”: a group of communists calling for “international solidarity of the Jewish and Arab proletariat” and heading from the outskirts of Jaffa toward Tel Aviv collide with the main demonstration by the Zionist Labour movement. Tension mounts between Palestinian and Jewish demonstrators, and then confrontation spreads rapidly. Three days of clashes result in the death of 43 Jews and 14 Palestinians. On 5 and 6 May, the explosive situation reached Petah Tikva, al-Yahudiyya (renamed al-Abbasiyya in 1932), and Hadera, causing the death of 4 Jews and 54 Palestinians (for the latter, mainly due to the intervention of the British military). On 7 May, High Commissioner Herbert Samuel appointed Palestine Chief Justice Thomas Haycraft to head a commission of inquiry into the disturbances.
Amin al-Husseini Elected Mufti of Jerusalem
8 MAY 1921
Muhammad Amin al-Husseini is elected mufti of Jerusalem after the death of his elder brother Kamel al-Husseini, who had held this position. He will be elected head of the Supreme Moslem Council on 9 January 1922.
4th Palestinian National Congress Is Held in Jerusalem
29 MAY 1921 – 4 JUNE 1921
The Congress decides to send a Palestinian delegation to London to explain the Palestinian case against the Balfour Declaration: “the Palestinian people will never admit the right of any outside organization to dispossess them of their country.” The delegation will arrive in London on 2 August and remain for almost one year (leaving 31 July 1922).
12th Zionist Congress Is Held in Carlsbad (Karlovy Vary)
1 SEPTEMBER 1921 – 14 SEPTEMBER 1921
The Zionist Congress (which had last met in 1913) welcomed the Balfour Declaration and the decision of the Allies to grant Great Britain the Mandate over Palestine. Chaim Weizmann is elected president of the World Zionist Organisation.
Transfer of Land Amendment Ordinance No. 2
8 DECEMBER 1921
Faced with widespread discontent from both Arab and Zionist organizations on the 1920 Land Transfer Ordinance, the British decide to remove all restrictions on the disposition of land, except for the provision meant to ensure that the “tenant in occupation” retains enough land for himself and his family. However, in the near decade, that follows illegal methods have been systematically and successfully implemented by both sellers and buyers to circumvent the tenant’s protection.
Collective Responsibility for Crime Ordinance Comes into Force
1 JANUARY 1922
The Collective Responsibility for Crime Ordinance allows Mandate authorities to hold entire villages or tribes responsible for crimes committed by “persons unknown” and thus to impose collective fines on these communities or force them to pay for auxiliary police posts.
White Paper (Churchill) of 1922 Is Published
3 JUNE 1922
At a time when the Palestinian delegation in London makes its case against the Balfour Declaration, Winston Churchill, then-Secretary of State for the Colonies, publishes a White Paper detailing the British understanding of the Declaration. It states that the Declaration does not contemplate that Palestine “as a whole” should be converted into a Jewish National Home, but that such a Home should be founded “in Palestine.” However, it affirms that Jews are in Palestine “as of right and not on the sufferance” and explains that the British commitment to the Jewish national home entails that the Jewish community in Palestine should be able to increase its numbers by immigration. In order to respond to the Palestinian delegation’s assertion that British/ McMahon pledges concerning Arab independence include Palestine, the White Paper, in its defense of the Balfour Declaration, claims (falsely) that the exclusions indicated by McMahon to Sharif Hussein concerned “the vilayet of Beirut and the independent Sanjak of Jerusalem” and that “the whole of Palestine west of the Jordan was thus excluded from Sir. Henry McMahon’s pledge.”
The League of Nations Ratifies Britain’s Mandate over Palestine and Recognizes the Zionist Organization
24 JULY 1922
The text of the Mandate reiterates Britain’s commitment to the Zionist project as phrased in the Balfour Declaration. It also decides that an “appropriate Jewish agency shall be recognized as a public body for the purpose of advising and cooperating” with the Mandatory Power in matters related to the establishment of the Jewish National Home. It specifies that the Zionist Organization will be considered as such an agency and requests it to secure the cooperation of all Jews who are willing to assist in the establishment of the Jewish National Home.
5th Palestinian National Congress Meets in Nablus
20 AUGUST 1922 – 1 SEPTEMBER 1922
The 5th Palestinian National Congress reviews the results of the visit to London by the Palestinian delegation, whose formation was decided by the 4th Congress in June 1921. It affirms its struggle toward independence and denounces the proposed Constitution for Palestine, which provides, in particular, for the establishment of a Legislative Council. It refuses participation in the elections for the Council, citing the following reasons: its purpose is to implement the Jewish National Home in Palestine; Palestinian representatives would always be a minority in the Council (compared to the majority constituted by the appointed civil servants and the Jewish representatives); and the decisions of the Council would always require the approval of the High Commissioner.
1st British Census of Palestine
OCTOBER 1922
A census shows a total population of 757,182, with 78% Muslim, 11% Jewish, and 9.6% Christian.
Palestinians Boycott Elections
FEBRUARY 1923 – MARCH 1923
Elections are held to replace the temporary Advisory Council, constituted in October 1920, with a Legislative Council as provided for in the Palestine Order in Council. In accordance with the decisions of the 5th Palestinian National Congress, the Palestinians decided to boycott the elections.
6th Palestinian National Congress Is Held in Jaffa
16 JUNE 1923
The Palestinian National Congress states its rejection of the Advisory Council (which the British High Commissioner had attempted to revive in view of his failure to form a Legislative Council) and decides to send a third Palestinian delegation to London.
13th Zionist Congress Is Held in Carlsbad (Karlovy Vary)
6 AUGUST 1923 – 18 AUGUST 1923
The Zionist Congress discusses and rejects the participation of non-Zionist Jews in a Jewish Agency to be established as provided for in Article 4 of the Mandate. The latter had requested the Zionist Organization “to secure the co-operation of all Jews who are willing to assist in the establishment of the Jewish national home.”
Official Onset of British Mandate for Palestine
29 SEPTEMBER 1923
Palestinians Reject Arab Agency Scheme
12 OCTOBER 1923
High Commissioner Herbert Samuel presents to 26 Palestinian notables a scheme for an Arab Agency (as an organization parallel to the Jewish Agency ). The Palestinians unanimously reject the proposal and make clear that they want constitutional government for Palestine.
4th Wave of Jewish Immigration to Palestine
1924 – 1928
More than 67,000 Zionists immigrate to Palestine.
Anti-Balfour Demonstrations in Palestine
25 MARCH 1925 – 1 APRIL 1925
Demonstrations and general strikes erupt all over Palestine to protest the visit of Lord Arthur James Balfour, who arrives in Palestine to participate in the inauguration of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem on 1 April. Palestinian leaders, almost unanimously, boycott the ceremony.
14th Zionist Congress Is Held in Vienna
18 AUGUST 1925 – 31 AUGUST 1925
The Revisionist Movement, founded by Ze’ev (Vladimir) Jabotinsky, attends the Zionist Congress for the first time. The Congress continues to oppose the participation of non-Zionists within the Jewish Agency to be established as per Article 4 of the Palestine Mandate.
The Palestine Gendarmerie Is Disbanded, and the Palestine Police Reorganized
1 APRIL 1926
After nearly five years of relative calm in Palestine, the British decided to disband the Palestine Gendarmerie, integrating a number of its former members into a newly reorganized Palestine Police force. The Police Ordinance of 1926 establishes the structure, duties, and expectations of the police force, including a specific section on “assemblies and processions” that empowers any police officer to disperse “any assembly whatever in any public place” and to arrest without warrant any person who does not immediately comply with such an order.
Powerful Earthquake in Palestine and Transjordan
11 JULY 1927
A devastating earthquake hits Palestine. The epicentre is close to Jericho, and Nablus, Jerusalem, Ramla, Lydda, and Tiberias are severely affected; several villages are almost completely destroyed, and hundreds of people are reported killed and injured. In Transjordan, al-Salt, Irbid, and Amman are severely hit.
15th Zionist Congress Is Held in Basel
30 AUGUST 1927 – 11 SEPTEMBER 1927
The 15th Zionist Congress discusses Jewish demographic facts – in 1927 more Jews were leaving Palestine than immigrating to it. Such a negative balance in Jewish migration will not happen again during the Mandate. Disagreements on the issue of the Jewish Agency are not resolved.
Land Settlement Ordinance No. 9
30 MAY 1928
Replicating a method used throughout their colonial possessions and first developed in Australia, the British authorities launched a settlement process aimed at improving the collection of taxes, providing greater security of title to land, and identifying and registering Government lands. The settlement operations consist of dividing the land through a cadastral survey, followed by a judicial investigation of all rights (property and encumbrances) affecting a given parcel and their subsequent registration in new land registers. Although the settlement process does not officially aim at facilitating land acquisition by Zionist institutions and individuals, it nevertheless has this effect.
7th Palestinian National Congress Meets in Jerusalem
20 JUNE 1928 – 27 JUNE 1928
The Palestinian National Congress affirms that after 10 years of absolute colonial rule, Palestine has the right to demand a democratic parliamentary government, like neighbouring Arab countries. It also affirms that the Palestinian inhabitants demand the formation of a representative assembly to adopt a Palestinian constitution that would ensure the establishment of a parliamentary government.
Tension Over al-Buraq/ Western Wall
23 SEPTEMBER 1928 – 30 OCTOBER 1928
Jewish worshippers take benches and objects of worship to al-Buraq on Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement). This constitutes a breach of the Ottoman-old status quo and takes place against a background of increasing Zionist efforts during the previous years to expand Jewish rights at the wall and to purchase buildings adjacent to it from the Muslim Waqf. British policemen clash with worshippers when they forcibly remove the benches and other objects. On 3 October, a Muslim delegation submits a memorandum to Acting High Commissioner H.C. Luke, demanding that Jewish worshippers at the wall not go “beyond the rights they enjoyed under the Ottoman regime.” The Zionist outcry – ostensibly in protest of British police behaviour but whose real goal is to change the status quo – arouses fear among Palestinian leaders that Zionists intend to take over the Haram al-Sharif area and build a synagogue overlooking the wall.
Islamic Conference in Defense of al-Buraq and Muslim Holy Places in Jerusalem
1 NOVEMBER 1928
Eight hundred Muslims from Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, and Transjordan attend a special conference organised by the Supreme Muslim Council (headed by Muhammad Amin al-Husseini ). The conference urges Muslims everywhere to send petitions to Great Britain and the League of Nations on the issue of al-Buraq and Muslim holy places in Jerusalem. It also establishes the Society for the Protection of the Moslem Holy Places.
White Paper (Amery) on Status Quo at al-Buraq / Western Wall
19 NOVEMBER 1928 – 27 DECEMBER 1928
Secretary of State for the Colonies Col. Leopold H. Amery issues a White Paper, in which he describes the Jewish action at al-Buraq on 24 September as an infraction of the status quo established under the Ottomans and asserts the intention of the British authorities to maintain the status quo. On 27 December, Haj Amin al-Husseini, in his capacity as head of the Supreme Moslem Council, addresses a letter to the Governor of Jerusalem district in which he declares that “the Council hopes that the Government will implement, effectively and as soon as possible, the provision of the White Paper concerning the necessity of maintaining the status quo as it was established during the Turkish era.”
5th Wave of Jewish Immigration
1929 – 1939
The fifth wave of more than 250,000 Zionist immigrants increases the Jewish population in Palestine to 30% of the total.
16th Zionist Congress Is Held in Zurich
28 JULY 1929 – 11 AUGUST 1929
Ending a seven-year debate, the Zionist Congress approves the inclusion of non-Zionist Jews in the Jewish Agency for Palestine, called for in Article 4 of the Mandate, and adopts its constitution. The Jewish Agency will be officially recognized by Britain in August 1930. The Congress calls for “linking up of the Jewish Agency with the administrative apparatus of the country.” It affirms that “the employment of Jewish labour for all branches of Jewish production in Eretz Yisrael is an indispensable condition for the growth of the Jewish Yishuv and for the realisation of Zionist aims.”
1st Palestine Arab Women’s Congress Is Held in Jerusalem
26 OCTOBER 1929
About 300 women representing various parts of Palestine met in the 1st Palestine Arab Women’s Congress, held in Jerusalem. The congress establishes a 14-member Executive Committee and recommends the establishment of women’s societies in Palestinian cities. It adopts resolutions that reflect the Palestinian demands, such as repealing the Balfour Declaration, stopping Jewish immigration, annulling the Collective Punishment Ordinance, and putting an end to the mistreatment of Palestinian demonstrators or prisoners by the police. The resolutions are delivered by a delegation from the Congress to the High Commissioner, Sir John Chancellor.
General Conference of Palestine Arab Workers, Haifa
11 JANUARY 1930
At the initiative of the Palestine Arab Workers Society (PAWS), 61 delegates representing 3,020 workers took part in the conference, from Haifa, Jerusalem, Jaffa, Acre, Nazareth, Lydda and Shefa-Amr. The delegates, most of whom are workers elected from their workplace, with a handful of intellectuals, call for an eight-hour work day, the right to strike, and government hiring of Arab workers in proportion to their percentage in the population. Other resolutions are more political in nature: they target the British colonial power as the main adversary, they affirm the principle of the Arab Palestinians having control over the country and remaining part of a wider Arab entity.
John Hope Simpson Sent to Palestine to Investigate Questions of Immigration, Land Settlement and Development
2 MAY 1930
The British Colonial Secretary, Lord Passfield, appoints Sir John Hope Simpson to go to Palestine to confer with the High Commissioner and examine “on the spot” the questions of immigration, land settlement and development. Passfield aims to assuage the protests of Zionists and their supporters who were displeased with the findings of the Shaw Commission Report of March 1930 and who requested the formation of a follow-up investigative committee to look into the question of land and immigration.
Hanging of Palestinian Militants
17 JUNE 1930
Atta al-Zeer, Fouad Hijazi, and Muhammad Jamjoum, who had participated in the al-Buraq Disturbances (August 1929), were hanged by the British authorities in Acre Prison.
Hope-Simpson Report Is Published
22 AUGUST 1930 – 20 OCTOBER 1930
In his report dated 22 August and published on 20 October, Sir John Hope Simpson finds that there is no land sufficiently developed to support continued Jewish immigration and that “the sole way in which the Mandate can be carried out is by the intensive development of rural Palestine.” He affirms that “without development, there is no room for a single additional settler, if the standard of life of the fellahin is to remain at its present levels.” He recommends establishing a Development Commission that would be responsible for the development of the land and “its colonization both by Arab and Jew” and making use of a forthcoming census to “ascertain the number of Arabs who have become landless” as a result of land passing to the Jewish settlers.
Report of the International Commission on al-Buraq / Western Wall
1 DECEMBER 1930
The international commission that was formed in May to determine the rights and claims of Muslims and Jews in connection with al-Buraq / the Western Wall concludes that the ownership of the latter, and the proprietary right to it, belongs solely to the Muslims. The commission considers that al-Buraq / the Western Wall forms an integral part of the Haram al-Sharif area, which is a waqf property. It adds that Jews shall have free access to the Western Wall for the purpose of devotion at all times, subject to a number of restrictions. The commission, in effect, recognises the status quo that had prevailed under the Ottomans.
Establishment of Irgun
APRIL 1931
Irgun was established by Ze’ev (Vladimir) Jabotinsky and others as a Revisionist breakaway from the paramilitary Zionist organisation Haganah.
17th Zionist Congress Is Held in Basel
30 JUNE 1931 – 15 JULY 1931
Due to Zionist frustration over what was considered as pro-Arab British reports on the causes of al-Buraq Disturbances (August 1929) and in spite of subsequent assurances to Chaim Weizmann, delegates (especially Revisionists under Jabotinsky ) criticize the “pro-British” policy of Weizmann. The latter resigns as head of the Zionist Organization and is replaced by Nahum Sokolow. However, the pro-British orientation continues with the increased Labour representation (Mapai) in the organization to the detriment of the Revisionists.
2nd British Census of Palestine
NOVEMBER 1931
The census shows a total population of 1,035,154, with 73.4% Muslim, 16.9% Jewish, and 8.6% Christian.
Increase in Jewish Immigration from Germany
1933 – 1935
With the rise of the Nazis to power in Germany, Jewish immigration increased dramatically, reaching 180,000 between 1933 and 1935. The new immigrants are mostly from Poland and Germany, and many are from the middle class; they greatly contribute to the material wealth of the Jewish community in Palestine.
18th Zionist Congress Is Held in Prague
21 AUGUST 1933 – 3 SEPTEMBER 1933
The Zionist Congress meets; mutual recriminations between the Zionist Labour movement (under David Ben-Gurion ) and the Revisionists intensify. With Hitler’s rise to power, the congress “regards it as the duty of the Mandatory Power to open the gates of Palestine for as large an immigration of German Jews as possible and to facilitate their settlement, and to take all steps so that the Jewish National Home, whose establishment is the cardinal object of the Mandate, shall be built as speedily as possible and on the largest scale.” The congress also expresses the hope that, with the aid of the Mandatory Power, a way will be found to render possible “Jewish colonisation in Transjordan .”
General Strike and Demonstrations in Palestine
8 OCTOBER 1933 – 3 NOVEMBER 1933
The Arab Executive Committee calls for a general strike in Palestine to take place on 13 October to protest Jewish immigration and British pro-Zionist policy. Demonstrations are scheduled in Jerusalem and Jaffa. The Jerusalem demonstration, led by Musa Kazim al-Husseini, was held on 13 October and clashed with the British police, resulting in a limited number of injuries. In the Jaffa demonstration, which takes place on 27 October, demonstrators are fired at by the police, around 20 Palestinians are killed, and the 80-year-old Musa Kazim Husseini is hit on the forehead with a club by a mounted British policeman. Disturbances then spread to Nablus (the same day), Haifa (on 27 and 28 October), and Jerusalem again (on 28 and 29 October). In total, more than 30 Palestinians are killed by live ammunition, while 200 are injured. A commission of inquiry (Murison Commission ) is subsequently appointed.
Murison Commission of Inquiry
4 JANUARY 1934
The special commission of inquiry under Sir William Murison reports on the November 1933 disturbances. It absolves the police of any responsibility, while noting “a general feeling of apprehension amongst the Arabs engendered by the purchase of land by the Jews and by Jewish immigration.”
The British issued the Press Ordinance
17 JANUARY 1935
The Press Ordinance allows the High Commissioner to censor the reporting of newspapers within Palestine and to ban the import of newspapers published outside of Palestine. The ordinance is amended in March 1936 to give the High Commissioner the power to warn publishers and suspend publication of newspapers indefinitely. The Mandate authorities will exercise this power (sometimes for months at a time) during the Great Revolt.
19th Zionist Congress Meets in Lucerne
20 AUGUST 1935 – 4 SEPTEMBER 1935
With Labour support, Chaim Weizmann assumes the role of president of the Zionist Congress. Failing to have their views adopted by the movement, Revisionists quit the World Zionist Organization several weeks later to form the New Zionist Organization. The issue of German Jews occupies part of the deliberations.
Nuremberg Laws and Jewish Immigration
15 SEPTEMBER 1935
Announced in Germany, the Nuremberg Laws triggered massive Jewish immigration. Through agreements reached between Zionist leaders and the Nazi government, Jews who choose to emigrate to Palestine are able to transfer their financial assets.
Death of Shaykh Izzeddin al-Qassam
12 NOVEMBER 1935 – 21 NOVEMBER 1935
Shaykh Izzeddin al-Qassam, an imam in a Haifa mosque who had fled Syria to Palestine in 1920 after participating in armed resistance against the French Mandate authorities, and who has been calling in his sermons for resisting British colonialism and the Zionist movement, declares jihad on the night of 12 November in Haifa. He then takes to the forests of Ya’bad village, Jenin subdistrict, with 11 of his followers. On 20 November, he is ambushed by a British force, and an unequal battle lasting six hours takes place. He dies in action with 4 of his men. Thousands of Palestinians attend his funeral in Haifa the following day. His death constitutes one of the first sparks that will ignite the 1936 Great Palestinian Rebellion.
First Phase of the Great Arab Revolt
15 APRIL 1936 – 23 JULY 1937
Palestinian rebels attack a convoy of trucks on the road from Nablus to Tulkarm, killing three Jewish drivers. The next day, Irgun members attack and kill two Palestinian workers sleeping in huts outside of Petah Tikva, and in the following days, deadly disturbances ensue in Tel Aviv and Jaffa. As of 19 April, and before the end of the month, National Committees are established in all Palestinian towns and large villages, and consecutive calls are made for a general strike. On 7 May, a conference of all National Committees, meeting in Jerusalem, calls for no taxation without representation. A nationwide general strike is announced.
Enactment of Emergency Regulations
19 APRIL 1936
The High Commissioner issues a proclamation declaring the entry into operation of the Palestine (Defence) Order in Council, 1931. He then promulgates Emergency Regulations that vest the British authorities with the power to occupy buildings, impose curfew, censor written materials, deport individuals, and arrest without warrant. Additional regulations are enacted during the following weeks.
British Violent Repression
MAY 1936 – JUNE 1936
The British round up a large number of Palestinian leaders and send them to a detention camp at Auja al-Hafir in the Negev desert. They conduct intensive village searches throughout Palestine in search of arms and rebels, and demolish between 220 and 240 buildings in the Old City of Jaffa as a punitive measure, leaving at least 6,000 Palestinians homeless.
British Secure Military Reinforcements
MAY 1936 – SEPTEMBER 1936
The British authorities bring military reinforcements from Malta and Egypt and form armed Jewish units equipped with armoured vehicles to serve as auxiliary police. The Haganah and its units that guard the Jewish colonies are thus legalized and are known as the Jewish Settlement Police. At the end of the first stage of the Revolt, their strength reaches 3,000 people who participate in the campaign against the Rebellion. Additional British reinforcements arrive in Palestine in September 1936 in order to conduct extensive military operations against the Palestinian rebellion. By the end of 1937, nearly 20,000 British troops were on the ground in Palestine, putting down Arab resistance.
General Strike Called Off; Consent to Appear before the Peel Commission
11 OCTOBER 1936
The AHC agrees to call off the general strike and to appear before the Peel Commission following intervention by the kings of Saudi Arabia and Iraq and the Emir of Transjordan.
Second Phase of the Great Arab Revolt
JULY 1937 – SEPTEMBER 1938
Peel Commission Issues its Report
7 JULY 1937
The Peel Commission issues its report. It is the first British proposal to partition Palestine into a Jewish state, an Arab state (to be incorporated into Transjordan ), and British Mandatory enclaves. It calls for the forcible transfer, if necessary, of the Palestinian population out of the Jewish state.
Palestinians Reject Peel Commission Report
23 JULY 1937
The AHC rejects the Peel Commission’s partition proposal and demands an independent unitary Palestinian state “with protection of all legitimate Jewish and other minority rights and the safeguarding of reasonable British interests.” Palestinian rebellion intensifies.
20th Zionist Congress Meets in Zürich
3 AUGUST 1937 – 16 AUGUST 1937
The Zionist Congress discusses the Peel Commission Report, finds the recommended borders of the proposed Jewish state unacceptable, but empowers its executive to ascertain with the British “the precise terms … for the proposed establishment of a Jewish state” and negotiate a more favourable plan.
Arab National Congress Convenes in Bludan
8 SEPTEMBER 1937 – 9 SEPTEMBER 1937
Initiated by the AHC, an “Arab National Congress ” convenes in Bludan, Syria, and is attended by 450 delegates from Arab countries. The Congress rejects the Peel Commission’s partition proposal and demands the termination of the Mandate, the cessation of Zionist immigration into Palestine, and the prohibition of the transfer of Arab lands to Zionist ownership.
Irgun Attacks on Palestinians
11 NOVEMBER 1937 – 14 NOVEMBER 1937
A bomb thrown in Jerusalem by Irgun militants kills 1 Palestinian and wounds 3. Three days later, an Irgun attack on a bus in Jerusalem kills 3 Palestinians.
Appointment of the Palestine Partition (Woodhead) Commission
4 JANUARY 1938
Pushed by the Foreign Office, the British government resolves to send a technical commission of inquiry (the Palestine Partition Commission ) to study the feasibility of partition as recommended by the Peel Commission. The technical commission is chaired by Sir John Woodhead and stays in Palestine between the end of April and the beginning of August 1938.
Irgun Attacks Against Palestinians Intensify
JULY 1938 – AUGUST 1938
In July and August, the number of Irgun bomb-planting against Arabs in mixed cities (Haifa, Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Jaffa ) dramatically increases, provoking Arab riots. In July, 100 Arabs and 27 Jews are killed, and 206 Arabs and 64 Jews are injured. Elsewhere, Arabs conduct sabotage operations against telephone lines, railways, the frontier fence, and the oil pipeline.
Third Phase of the Great Arab Revolt
SEPTEMBER 1938 – JULY 1939
MacDonald’s White Paper of 1939 Is Published
17 MAY 1939 – 23 MAY 1939
Colonial Secretary of State Malcolm MacDonald issues a White Paper / Statement of Policy. The statement is drafted after MacDonald listened to Arab and Zionist delegations during the London Round Table Conference; it takes into account some of the Arab/ Palestinian concerns, lessons of the Great Palestinian Rebellion, and fears of a possible war in Europe. It makes the following proposal: no more than 75,000 Jews would be allowed into the country within the next five years, after which Jewish immigration would be subject to “Arab acquiescence”; land transfers would be permitted in certain areas but restricted and prohibited in others; an independent unitary state would be established after 10 years conditional on safeguarding “the special position in Palestine of the Jewish National Home” and on favorable Palestinian–Jewish relations; participation of Arab and Jewish representatives in the government of Palestine would be gradually increased during a transitional period to start as soon as peace and order are restored. The British House of Commons votes 268 to 179 to approve the White Paper.
21st Zionist Congress Meets in Geneva
16 AUGUST 1939 – 25 AUGUST 1939
Meeting at a time of mounting tension in Europe, the Zionist Congress rejected MacDonald’s White Paper (announced three months earlier), which limited Jewish immigration and land purchase in Palestine.
Outbreak of World War II
1 SEPTEMBER 1939
Military Recruitment in Palestine
3 SEPTEMBER 1939
Soldiers are recruited for the British military. About 27,000 Jews join the British armed forces, and 23,000 Palestinians volunteer for service with British forces in North Africa and the Arab Legion.
Support in the United States for a Jewish Army
NOVEMBER 1942
American public figures, including members of Congress, submit a memorandum to President Franklin D. Roosevelt backing the Zionist demand for a Jewish army.
Five-Year Limit on Jewish Immigration Extended
NOVEMBER 1943
The 5-year limit on Jewish immigration, stipulated in MacDonald’s White Paper of 1939 and due to end in April 1944, is extended by Britain because 31,000 visas (out of a total of 75,000 allowed by the White Paper) are still unused.
British Recommend Partition
DECEMBER 1943
Churchill’s War Cabinet committee recommends the partition of Palestine as the official British policy. (Churchill had asked the committee to look into alternatives to MacDonald’s White Paper of 1939 as a result of the Zionist campaign in the United States and Great Britain against it.)
British Labour Party Favours Transfer of Palestinians
MAY 1944
The British Labour Party passes a resolution recommending that Palestinians be “encouraged” to move out of Palestine to make way for Jewish immigrants.
Alexandria Protocol and the League of Arab States
7 OCTOBER 1944
The protocol, issued by representatives of five Arab states (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, and Transjordan) meeting in Alexandria, announces the representatives’ intent to establish a League of Arab States and their support of the independence of Palestine and the legitimate rights of the Arabs in Palestine. It calls for distinguishing between Zionism and the woes and pains that have befallen the Jews at the hands of some dictatorial European states.” The meeting is attended by Musa Alami, representing the Palestinians.
Roosevelt and Ibn Saud Meet
14 FEBRUARY 1945
US President Franklin D. Roosevelt meets King Abdulaziz Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia aboard the USS “Quincy” at the Suez Canal. The Saudi king “calls attention to the increasing threat to the existence of the Arabs and the crisis which has resulted from continued Jewish immigration and the purchase of land by the Jews” and states that “the Arabs would choose to die rather than yield their lands to the Jews.” In reply, Roosevelt assures the Saudi king that “he would do nothing to assist the Jews against the Arabs and would make no move hostile to the Arab people.” Roosevelt will pass away on 12 April.
End of World War II
8 MAY 1945 – 15 AUGUST 1945
Germany surrenders on 8 May. Japan announces its surrender on 15 August after the United States drops an atomic bomb on Hiroshima (6 August) and on Nagasaki (9 August).
Pledge to Buy US Armament for the Haganah
JULY 1945
On a visit to the US, David Ben-Gurion meets with 19 prominent American Zionists, who pledge to finance the purchase of military industrial machinery in the US for use by the Haganah.
Labor Victory in Great Britain
26 JULY 1945
Elections in Great Britain led to the defeat of Churchill and the rise of the British Labour Party (under Clement Attlee’s leadership), which had run on a platform that called not only for a Jewish state in Palestine but also for the transfer of Palestinians to Transjordan.
Truman and Jewish Immigration to Palestine
31 AUGUST 1945
President Harry Truman asks British Prime Minister Clement Attlee to allow the immigration of 100,000 Jews into Palestine. This signals the beginning of direct American involvement in the British handling of the question of Palestine.
Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry Publishes its Report after a Visit to Palestine
6 MARCH 1946 – 20 APRIL 1946
The Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry (whose formation was announced by Ernest Bevin on 13 November 1945) arrived in Palestine during the first week of March. Its report, published on 20 April, makes the following recommendations: admission of 100,000 Jewish immigrants into Palestine; abolition of the Land Transfers Regulations of 20 February 1940, which protected Palestinians against Zionist land acquisition; that Palestine “shall be neither a Jewish state nor an Arab state”; that, given the hostility between Jews and Arabs, the Mandate should continue, pending trusteeship under the United Nations. The report triggers Palestinian strikes.
Independence of the Emirate of Transjordan and Establishment of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
25 MAY 1946
Following the signing of a treaty with Great Britain, the Emirate of Transjordan became independent. The Parliament proclaims Emir Abdullah King and changes the name of the country from the Emirate of Transjordan to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.
Arab League Holds its First Summit on Palestine in Anshas
28 MAY 1946 – 29 MAY 1946
At their first summit meeting on Palestine in Anshas (Egypt ), Arab League heads of state called for the independence of Palestine and the formation of a national government that will safeguard the rights of all citizens irrespective of race or creed.
President Truman Supports Jewish Immigration to Palestine
6 JUNE 1946
US President Harry Truman calls for the immediate immigration of 100,000 Jews into Palestine and endorses the right of the Jews to purchase land in Palestine, while ignoring the remaining recommendations of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry.
22nd Zionist Congress Is Held in Basel
9 DECEMBER 1946 – 24 DECEMBER 1946
The Congress resolves that no new trusteeship for Palestine, superseding the mandate and postponing or preventing Jewish statehood, should be established. It calls for investing the Jewish Agency with control over immigration and authority to develop the country. It refuses to consider the federalisation plan for Palestine offered by the British government (and criticizes it) and expresses its appreciation of the positions of the US President and Congress.
British Refer Palestine to the UN
2 APRIL 1947
The British officially submitted the question of Palestine to the United Nations, in order for the General Assembly “to make recommendations, under Article 10 of the Charter, concerning the future government of Palestine.”
Continuation of Zionist-British Confrontation
16 APRIL 1947 – 26 APRIL 1947
Four Zionist terrorists are executed in Acre prison. Ten days later, a British officer and five security personnel were killed by a car bomb driven by Irgun into a British camp at Sarona, near Tel Aviv.
Zionist Attacks Against Palestinians
21 MAY 1947 – 15 AUGUST 1947
On 21 May, the Haganah killed 2 Palestinians and wounded 7 in two simultaneous attacks near Tel Aviv. On 15 August, the Haganah attacked a Palestinian orange grower’s house near Tel Aviv, killing 12 occupants, including a mother and 6 children.
UN Special Committee on Palestine Prepares its Proposals
15 JUNE 1947 – 3 SEPTEMBER 1947
Members of UNSCOP established in General Assembly Resolution 106 (S-1) arrive in Palestine and remain there until 20 July. They mainly meet Zionist representatives and are boycotted by the AHC on the basis that “Arabs’ natural rights are self-evident and cannot continue to be subject to investigation but deserve to be recognized on the basis of principles of the United Nations charter.” The committee then moves to Beirut, where members hear testimony from representatives of Arab states. The UNSCOP report was published on 3 September: while all members are unanimous in calling for the end of the British Mandate, the majority (Canada, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, the Netherlands, Peru, Sweden, and Uruguay ) recommends the partition of Palestine into an Arab State, a Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem to be placed under international trusteeship. The minority (India, Iran, and Yugoslavia ) recommends a federal solution.
Palestinians and Zionists on the UNSCOP Partition Plan
29 SEPTEMBER 1947 – 3 OCTOBER 1947
The AHC announces its rejection of the UNSCOP partition plan and calls for a three-day general strike. The Jewish Agency announces its acceptance of partition but objects to the exclusion of Western Galilee and Jerusalem from the proposed Jewish state.
US and USSR Endorse Partition
11 OCTOBER 1947 – 13 OCTOBER 1947
The US endorses the partition plan; the Soviet Union does so two days later.
UNGA 181 (II): Palestine Partition Plan
29 NOVEMBER 1947
The GA recommends the adoption and implementation of the Partition Plan of Palestineby a two-thirds majority (33 to 13 votes with 10 abstentions). The resolution stipulates that independent Arab and Jewish States and a Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem shall come into existence two months after the evacuation of the Mandatory armed forces, but not later than 1 October 1948. It also creates a commission that will progressively administer evacuated areas and hand over responsibilities to the new states. The GA, in effect, allocates 55.5% of Palestine to the Jewish State; the envisioned Arab state would have a Jewish minority of 1%, but the Palestinians in the proposed Jewish State would constitute 47% of its population.
The Haganah Implements Plan Gimmel
29 NOVEMBER 1947 – 1 DECEMBER 1947
Relying on the diplomatic and political assets provided to it by Resolution 181, the Haganah prepares for the operational stage on the ground. It implements Plan Gimmel, formulated in May 1946 and designed to destabilize the Palestinian population and occupy strategic positions in the country. It calls up all Jews in Palestine between the ages of 17 and 25 to register for military service. An estimated 80,000 members of the Haganah are alerted.
Palestinian Strike Against the Partition Plan and Palestinian-Zionist Clashes
2 DECEMBER 1947
Palestinians begin a three-day strike protesting the UN Partition Plan. Intercommunal clashes result in the death of 11 Jews and 13 Palestinians.
Britain Recommends Date of Mandate Termination
8 DECEMBER 1947
Britain recommends to the UN that the Palestine Mandate be terminated on 15 May 1948, followed by the creation of independent Jewish and Palestinian states two weeks later.
Arab League Rejects Partition Plan
8 DECEMBER 1947 – 16 DECEMBER 1947
The Arab League, meeting in Cairo, declares the partition of Palestine illegal. It decides to put at the disposal of the Technical Military Committee 10,000 rifles, 3,000 volunteers (including 500 Palestinians), and £1,000,000.
Arab Liberation Army Organized
1 JANUARY 1948 – 10 JANUARY 1948
The Technical Military Committee of the Arab League organizes volunteer force of Arab irregulars called the Arab Liberation Army (ALA), under the command of guerrilla leader Fawzi al-Qawuqji, to help Palestinians resist partition. The first ALA volunteers, numbering 330, arrive in northern Palestine on 8 January; they clash with British troops when attacking the colonies of Dan and Kfar Szold on 9-10 January.
Massacre in Deir Yasin
9 APRIL 1948 – 11 APRIL 1948
Irgun and the LEHI-Stern Gang massacred more than 100 inhabitants in the village of Deir Yasin, a western suburb of Jerusalem, about 5 kilometres from al-Qastal. Two days later, the Haganah occupies Deir Yasin.
Fall of Tiberias
16 APRIL 1948 – 18 APRIL 1948
In the wake of the sudden British withdrawal from Tiberias, the Haganah attacks and captures the city; Palestinian residents flee.
Operation Hametz and the Fall of Jaffa
24 APRIL 1948 – 13 MAY 1948
Irgun and the Haganah, under Operation Hametz, start the offensive against Jaffa with heavy mortar shelling followed by an infantry attack. On 28 April, the British intervened to stop the attack. However, the Haganah captures the Jaffa suburbs of Salama, Yazur, Tall al-Rish, and Jabaliya, cutting off Jaffa from the hinterland. The remaining residents flee the city by sea on 29 April. An ALA relief unit, under Michel Issa, and other volunteers succeed in fighting their way into Jaffa in order to break the Haganah siege and maintain resistance. On 4 May, Irgun units occupied the village of al-Abbasiyya, near Jaffa. The following day, the ALA unit under Michel Issa withdraws from Jaffa, ending the city’s resistance. On 10 May, the Haganah enters the city, and on 13 May, the city leaders sign the document of surrender to the Haganah.
Operation Jevussi for the Conquest of Jerusalem
26 APRIL 1948 – 30 APRIL 1948
The Haganah launches Operation Jevussi for the conquest of all of Jerusalem, including the Palestinian residential quarters in West and East Jerusalem outside the Old City, as well as the villages in the northern and eastern suburbs. On 26 April, the Haganah attacks Shaykh Jarrah in East Jerusalem, but British forces intervene against the Haganah. A Haganah attempt at cutting off Jerusalem from Jericho also fails. On 29 April, it attacked and occupies Palestinian residential quarter of Qatamon in West Jerusalem. The following day, all Palestinian quarters in West Jerusalem are occupied by the Haganah, and residents are driven out.
Zionist Conquest of Eastern Galilee
28 APRIL 1948 – 25 MAY 1948
Ten days after conquering Tiberias, on 28 April, the Haganah launches an offensive (within Operation Yiftach that had started unsuccessfully on 15 April) to expel the Palestinians of eastern Galilee (from Rosh Pina to Jordan River ) and central Galilee and to capture Safad (which was evacuated by the British on 16 April). It also attacks and occupies the villages of Ayn al-Zaytun and Biriyya, north of Safad, and Samakh, south of Lake Tiberias; the residents flee the city. (Ayn al-Zaytun is the village that will be the basis of Elias Khoury’s novel Bab al-Shams.) On 6 May, the Haganah’s offensive to occupy Safad intensifies. It attacks and occupies the village of al-Shajara and neighbouring villages around Mount Tabor; the residents are driven out. It also launches Operation Gideon on 10 May to occupy villages in the al-Hula basin (upper eastern Galilee). It captures Safad and the surrounding villages on 11 May, and Baysan the following day. It also occupies the villages of Awlam, Hadatha, and Ma’dhar (Tiberias subdistrict, lower Galilee). Finally, al-Khalisa was conquered on 25 May.
Control of Coastal Plain Haifa-Tel Aviv
13 MAY 1948 – 23 MAY 1948
Ordered to occupy all Palestinian villages in the coastal plain near Tulkarm, the Haganah occupied the village of Kafr Saba on 13 May and started an abortive offensive (later abandoned) to capture Qalqilya and al-Tira, near Qalqilya. As part of Operation Namal, it concentrates on the village of al-Tantura on the night of 22-23 May: dozens of villagers are killed, 500 are taken prisoner, the others are expelled, and the village is destroyed.
Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel
14 MAY 1948
Meeting in Tel Aviv, members of a “Provisional Council of State” sign the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel.” It announces “the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel [Mandate Palestine], to be known as the State of Israel” and refers to the UNGA resolution that was adopted on 29 November 1947 and had called for the establishment of a Jewish State in what the declaration refers to as “Eretz-Israel.” However, it refrains from mentioning that the resolution had called for the partition of Palestine and the establishment of an Arab state and had delineated the borders of the Jewish state.
The British Mandate Ends. The US Recognizes the State of Israel
15 MAY 1948
On the occasion of the declaration by Zionist leaders of the establishment of the State of Israel, the White House issued a statement by President Truman: “This Government has been informed that a Jewish state has been proclaimed in Palestine, and recognition has been requested by the provisional government thereof. The United States recognizes the provisional government as the de facto authority of the new State of Israel.” The presidential statement is not explicit on whether the US recognizes the State of Israel de jure, in contrast to its de facto recognition of its government.
West Bank to Be Placed under Jordanian Military Government
16 MAY 1948 – 24 MAY 1948
Jordan’s Official Gazette (16 May) publishes an Addendum to the 1935 Transjordan Defense Regulations. (King Abdullah had signed the Addendum on 13 May.) The Addendum stipulates that the Defense Regulations shall apply to the country or areas that shall be controlled by the Jordanian army. On the basis of the Addendum, a military order dated 24 May appoints Jordan’s Military Governor General as Military Governor over the areas controlled by the Jordanian army in Palestine. These areas will be designated later as the Western Region, then as the West Bank. A second military order, issued on the same day, stipulates that all ordinances and regulations that were in force in Palestine shall remain in force in these areas, with the exception of those provisions that are repugnant to any provision of the 1935 Defense Regulations or provision issued by virtue thereof.
The USSR Recognizes the State of Israel on a de jure Basis
17 MAY 1948
The USSR was the first country to grant de jure recognition to Israel.
Count Bernadotte’s Palestine Plan
28 JUNE 1948
Count Bernadotte proposes the following plan to the Arab and Jewish authorities: Palestine and Transjordan to form a Union comprising two states, one Arab and one Jewish; the two states to form an economic union; immigration to be free during the first two years and then regulated, if requested by either state, by the Economic and Social Council of the UN whose decision would be binding; the right of residents of Palestine who left their “normal places of abode” to return to their homes without restriction; as to boundaries, inclusion of central Palestine and the whole or part of the Negev in Arab territory, inclusion of whole or part of Western Galilee in the Jewish territory, and the inclusion of the City of Jerusalem in Arab territory; Haifa and Jaffa to be free ports and Lydda to be a free airport.
Israeli Intelligence Report on the Depopulation of Palestine until 31 May 1948
30 JUNE 1948
The Arab section of the Intelligence Service of the new state of Israel submits a report entitled “Migration of Eretz Yisrael Arabs between December 1, 1947, and June 1, 1948.” The report enumerates the towns and villages that were totally or partially depopulated in Palestine, provides relevant information concerning each of these localities: their population before 1947, the number of Palestinians who left, their destination, and the causes for displacement. The report acknowledges that only 5% of those who left did so by orders from Arab leaders, and this was mainly for “strategic reasons,” such as attacking Zionist forces from a village as a launching base. It admits that towns and villages in Palestine were emptied of their Palestinian residents through “direct Jewish hostile actions against Arab communities,” “psychological warfare,” “evacuation ultimatum,” and “fear of Jewish retaliation.” The text of the report was published in July 2019 by Akevot, the Israeli Institute for Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Research, which found it in the MAPAM archives.
Bernadotte’s New Plan
16 SEPTEMBER 1948
After his unsuccessful first proposal, UN mediator Count Bernadotte abandons the idea of a Union and presents a new plan: two separate states, a fully sovereign Israeli state and the remaining part of Mandate Palestine to be merged with Transjordan; boundaries between the two states substantively identical to the first proposal, except for Jerusalem, which “should be placed under effective United Nations control”; return or compensation of the refugees; and establishment of a Palestine Conciliation Commission. The new plan is rejected by both the Arab League and Israel.
Israel Establishes Military Government
21 OCTOBER 1948
In his capacity as defense minister, David Ben-Gurion establishes officially the Military Government to replace the ad hoc administrations that the army had established in areas that continued to be home to a significant number of Palestinians. The purpose of the Military Government is to impose as many restrictions as possible on the daily life of the Palestinians, to prevent the return of refugees crossing the Arab-Israeli lines back to their homes, and to facilitate the seizure of Palestinian properties. In the areas placed under their responsibility, the military governors will make immediate use of two articles of the Defence (Emergency) Regulations, 1945, issued by the British Mandate: article 124, which allows them to impose a curfew in any area for any length of time; and article 125, which allows them to forbid any person to enter or leave an area declared a closed area if such person does not have a permit.
A Massacre in al-Dawayima
29 OCTOBER 1948
As part of Operation Yoav, Israeli forces occupy the village of al-Dawayima, kill hundreds of residents, and expel the rest. This is arguably the largest massacre of Palestinians during the Palestine War.
Israel Conducts its First Population Census
8 NOVEMBER 1948 – 1 FEBRUARY 1949
After intensive preparations and a previously announced 7-hour curfew for 8 November, hundreds of census officers entered homes (Jews and Arabs) in areas controlled by the new state and verified information collected during the previous weeks in the presence of all household members. The purpose of the census is twofold: enumeration of the population for statistical purposes and registration as potential citizens for those who are counted (with the implication that Palestinian refugees are to be excluded). The number of Palestinians who are counted amounts to 69,000. But tens of thousands of Palestinians present in Israeli-controlled areas are not counted (and thus to be potentially excluded from citizenship or even expelled). They belong to the following overlapping categories: those displaced within the areas under Israeli control; refugees who had crossed Israeli lines back from Lebanon or Jordanian-controlled areas; those who have remained in areas occupied by Israel beyond the territory allocated to it under the UN Partition Plan (including the central and Upper Galilee pocket that was conquered 8 days before during Operation Hiram) and who number between 30,000 and 40,000; between 13,000 and 15,000 Bedouins; 5,000 to 8,000 boys and men between the ages of 15 and 60 years interned in labor and prison camps.
Individual Return of Tens of Thousands of Palestinian Refugees; Israel Launches “War on Infiltration”
JANUARY 1949 – DECEMBER 1956
Faced with a mounting number of Palestinian refugees who cross the Arab-Israeli lines back to their villages, Prime Minister and Minister of Defense David Ben-Gurion authorizes the army to establish free-fire zones along the lines. In 1949 alone, more than 1,000 were killed, the majority of whom were civilians. It is estimated that between 2,700 and 5,000 people were killed through 1956. Other Israeli measures include booby-trapping areas on the cease-fire lines, conducting surprise identity checks along the roads, imposing curfews on villages to search house by house, or rounding up the populations of entire villages in order to determine (often arbitrarily) those who fail to show the right papers and proceed with expelling them beyond Israeli-controlled territory. It is estimated that around 20,000 Palestinians were expelled between 1949 and 1956, in addition to 17,000 Bedouin from the Naqab. At a more strategic level, Israeli measures include razing systematically “abandoned” villages to discourage potential “returnees” and establishing new settlements near the Palestinian villages and along the cease-fire lines. In spite of this policy, tens of thousands (estimates vary from 30,000 to 90,000) succeed in crossing the lines, are sheltered by relatives or friends or forge Israeli registration receipts, and remain in Israel-controlled territory.
The US Recognizes Israel on a de jure Basis
31 JANUARY 1949
Israel Enacts the Registration of Inhabitants Ordinance
1 FEBRUARY 1949
The ordinance requires all inhabitants to register at a registration office and receive a certificate of identity. In Summer 1949, the total number of Palestinians amounted to 156,000, including those who were counted in the census and those who had registered in a registration office. In terms of citizenship, the fate of the latter group (present-absentees and other Palestinians who will have crossed the cease-fire lines back to Israeli-controlled territory) will be determined by the Israeli Nationality Law of 1 April 1952.
Jordan’s Early Measures to “Jordanize” Arab Palestinians
14 FEBRUARY 1949
King Abdullah issued a law permitting any Arab Palestinian holder of the Palestinian nationality to obtain a Jordanian passport in accordance with Jordan’s Passports Law of 1942.
Egypt-Israel Armistice Agreement
24 FEBRUARY 1949
The Egypt-Israel Armistice Agreement was signed in Rhodes. The Armistice Demarcation Line, though constituting only a military boundary pending the settlement of the Palestine question, officially places a strip of Palestine land (now known as the Gaza Strip) under Egyptian military and administrative rule. The agreement includes the return to Egypt of the forces that were surrounded in the Faluja Pocket.
Syria-Israel Armistice Agreement
20 JULY 1949
The Syria-Israel Armistice Agreement establishes demilitarized zones around En Gev and Dardara.
Absentee Property Law, 5710-1950
14 MARCH 1950
In the wake of the Nakba, the Israeli authorities seek to “legalize” the confiscation of property left behind by Palestinian internal and external refugees. Intended to replace the “Emergency Regulations Regarding Absentee Property of 1948 ” issued in December 1948, this legislation is drafted in such a way as to define any Arab who left his residence during the war – regardless of whether he returned at a later stage – as an “absentee.” Absentees’ property (both movable and immovable) is then automatically transferred to the ” Custodian of Absentee Property,” which in turn is allowed to sell it to a unique body, the “Development Authority.”
The Knesset Enacts the Nationality Law
1 APRIL 1952
According to the Nationality Law of 1952, passed by the Knesset, Israeli nationality (or more precisely, Israeli citizenship) is acquired by return, or residence in Israel, or birth, or naturalization. Concerning return, the law considers as Israeli “every oleh according to the Law of Return, 1950.” This means that all Jews who resided in Palestine on 14 May 1948 (whether registered as Palestinian citizens under the Mandate or not) are considered Israelis. A person who may be recognized as Israeli through residence (in effect an Arab Palestinian) has to fulfill several conditions: (1) to have been a Palestinian citizen on 14 May 1948 and to whom the oleh status does not apply (i.e. a non-Jew); (2) to have been registered before 1 March 1952 as an inhabitant under the 1949 Registration of Inhabitants Ordinance; (3) to be an inhabitant of Israel on the day of the coming into force of this law (14 July 1952); or (4) to have lived continuously in Israeli-held territory from 15 May 1948 to 14 July 1952, or to have entered Israel legally during that period. Any Arab Palestinian who does not fulfill one of these four requirements is excluded from citizenship through residence, even if born in Israeli-held territory between 1948 and 1952. Acquisition of citizenship by birth is conditioned on one of the parents holding Israeli citizenship. All other inhabitants need to apply for naturalization by meeting a number of conditions. This will be the case for thousands of Palestinians who do not fulfill the four residence requirements, including spouses of Palestinians recognized as citizens by the new law. It is to be noted that, thanks to the 1950 Law of Return, drafters of the Israeli Nationality Law succeeded in avoiding the usage of terms such as Jew or Arab or any reference to a religious community.
Palestinians in Israel Protest the Nationality Law
14 JULY 1952
Palestinian and Jewish activists (lawyers, intellectuals, political figures) launch an unprecedented campaign against the Nationality Law during the weeks following its adoption by the Knesset. They protest in particular the need for a naturalization application by Arab Palestinians (and spouses) if they do not fulfill the arbitrary residence requirements of the law. Activists hold meetings in dozens of villages and towns to explain what is at stake in the new law. On 14 July, the day when the law enters into force, they organize a half-day work stoppage in Palestinian villages and towns. It is estimated that at the end of the 1960s, about 60,000 Palestinians living in Israel would still be considered stateless. Those who do not acquire citizenship through naturalization will have to wait until 29 July 1980, when an amendment to the law extends the registration requirement (under the 1949 Registration of Inhabitants Ordinance) from 1 March 1952 to 14 July 1952, and consequently grants them automatic citizenship through residence.
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